A Catechism of Familiar Things; Their History, and the Events Which Led to Their Discovery. With a Short Explanation of Some of the Principal Natural Phenomena. For the Use of Schools and Families. Enlarged and Revised Edition.

CHAPTER XXI.

ELEC­TRIC­ITY, ELEC­TRIC CUR­RENTS, ELEC­TRIC BAT­TERY, ELEC­TROTYP­ING, STEREO­TYP­ING, TELE­GRAPH, OCEAN CA­BLE, LIGHT­NING ROD, THE GULF STREAM, THE MT. CE­NIS TUN­NEL, THE SUEZ CANAL, SUS­PEN­SION BRIDGES, EM­INENT AMER­ICANS.

What is the na­ture of Elec­tric­ity?

A form of en­er­gy in­to which all oth­er forms can read­ily be con­vert­ed.

What is an Elec­tric cur­rent?

Elec­tric­ity man­ifests it­self in a va­ri­ety of ways, but all may be ar­ranged un­der two heads, _viz._, 1, as a charge; 2, as a cur­rent. By means of fric­tion, many bod­ies be­come elec­tri­fied--that is, have ac­quired an elec­tri­cal charge. If this charge is in great quan­ti­ty we call it high ten­sion. When a body con­tain­ing an elec­tri­cal charge is brought in con­tact with oth­er bod­ies through which elec­tric­ity is ca­pa­ble of pass­ing, there en­sues a cur­rent of elec­tric­ity. Such bod­ies are called con­duc­tors.

What are the sources of cur­rents?

There are cur­rents pro­duced by chem­ical ac­tion called volta­ic cur­rents; by the ac­tion of heat, or ther­mo-​elec­tric cur­rents; by the mo­tion of mag­nets, or mag­ne­to-​elec­tric cur­rents.

[Il­lus­tra­tion: RE­MOV­ING THE EARTH FROM THE CANAL BY MEANS OF DROMEDARIES.]

[Il­lus­tra­tion: OPEN­ING THE SUEZ CANAL--PRO­CES­SION OF SHIPS.]

What is pos­itive and what neg­ative elec­tric­ity?

No dif­fer­ence in elec­tric­ity in it­self. When a body has more than its nat­ural amount of elec­tric­ity, it is said to be charged pos­itive­ly; when it has less than its nat­ural amount it is neg­ative­ly charged.

What is a Cell; what a Bat­tery?

If a piece of zinc and cop­per joined by a wire be dipped in a liq­uid--gen­er­al­ly weak sul­phuric acid--which will act chem­ical­ly on the met­als, a cur­rent is pro­duced. Such an ar­range­ment is called a cou­ple, or cell. If many cells are con­nect­ed, then it is called a bat­tery.

What is Ther­mo-​elec­tric­ity?

If two bars of any un­like met­al--for ex­am­ple, an­ti­mo­ny and bis­muth--be sol­dered to­geth­er at one end, and the oth­er ends be con­nect­ed by a wire and then the sol­dered end heat­ed, a cur­rent will flow.

What ef­fects are pro­duced by cur­rents?

They pro­duce heat, light, de­com­po­si­tion and com­bi­na­tion in liq­uid chem­ical com­pounds; they melt all met­als, ex­cite mag­netism, and in the an­imal body ex­cite move­ments of the mus­cles.

Can you spec­ify these ef­fects?

A strong bat­tery pro­duces heat in such a de­gree that all met­als can be melt­ed. Light is pro­duced in flash­es, or if the end of the lead­ing wires are con­nect­ed with two pen­cils of hard car­bon, and brought very near to­geth­er, then a bril­liant light, or arc, called the volta­ic arc, is pro­duced. This is the daz­zling bright light which we call elec­tric light. The chem­ical ef­fect of a cur­rent in de­com­pos­ing com­pound sub­stances is called elec­trol­ysis. In this way wa­ter can be de­com­posed in­to its com­pounds, hy­dro­gen and oxy­gen; cop­per sul­phate in­to sul­phur and metal­lic cop­per, etc. In this way we can de­posit strong ad­her­ent films of met­al on the sur­face of any con­duc­tor; for if the ar­ti­cle to be coat­ed be at­tached to the neg­ative elec­trode of a bat­tery, and dipped in­to a so­lu­tion of the met­al with which we de­sire to coat the ar­ti­cle, say cop­per or sil­ver, and the pos­itive elec­trode be at­tached to a plate of cop­per and al­so dipped in­to a liq­uid, when the cur­rent pass­es, the met­al will be de­com­posed and de­posit­ed in a uni­form lay­er over the ar­ti­cle at the neg­ative elec­trode. This pro­cess is called _elec­tro-​plat­ing_.

What is Elec­trotyp­ing?

It is the pro­cess of copy­ing medals, type, wood-​cuts, en­graved cop­per and steel plates, etc., by means of elec­tri­cal de­po­si­tion. It is chiefly used for mak­ing, from the or­di­nary mov­able types, plates of fixed metal­lic types, for print­ing books.

De­scribe the pro­cess.

The ar­ti­cle to be copied is first cov­ered with black-​lead, and then a mould is made of it in wax or gut­ta-​per­cha. This mould is placed in a so­lu­tion of sul­phate of cop­per, and at­tached to the neg­ative pole of the bat­tery, while a plate of cop­per is hung from the pos­itive pole. The elec­tric cur­rent de­com­pos­es the cop­per, which is de­posit­ed in a thin film up­on the mould. This film is re­moved and stiff­ened by be­ing backed with met­al.

What is the dif­fer­ence be­tween Elec­trotyp­ing and Stereo­typ­ing?

In stereo­typ­ing, a plas­ter of Paris mould is tak­en from the types, and up­on this mould melt­ed type-​met­al is poured, which, when hard­ened, makes a sol­id plate.

Is there any oth­er method of stereo­typ­ing?

Yes; that known as the pa­per pro­cess. A uni­form sheet of soft mat­ter is formed by past­ing to­geth­er sheets of thin, tough tis­sue pa­per. The types are oiled, and the soft, moist sheet is placed on them and beat­en down with a stiff brush un­til it re­ceives an im­pres­sion of the type-​form. Both are then run through a press, and on be­ing tak­en out the pa­per is found to form a per­fect mould. In­to this mould the type-​met­al is poured and the plate formed.

Can you tell me some mag­net­ic ef­fects of the cur­rent?

All con­duc­tors be­come mag­net­ic dur­ing the pas­sage of a cur­rent through them, and there­by ac­quire all the prop­er­ties of a mag­net. There are bod­ies which are nat­ural mag­nets, and they are called per­ma­nent mag­nets. Those which be­come mag­nets on­ly dur­ing the pas­sage of a cur­rent are called elec­tro-​mag­nets.

Do you know any ap­pli­ca­tion of those mag­nets?

They are em­ployed in a great va­ri­ety of elec­tri­cal ap­pa­ra­tus, prin­ci­pal­ly in teleg­ra­phy.

When was the first tele­graph es­tab­lished?

It was made in 1836, be­ing in­vent­ed by Prof. Stein­heil, of Mu­nich, and adopt­ed by the gov­ern­ment of Bavaria. It was 12 miles long, and the sig­nals were made by small bells.

Who was the in­ven­tor of the tele­graph in this coun­try?

Samuel F.B. Morse, who was born at Charlestown, Mass., April 27, 1791. He be­gan life as a painter, but did not give his whole at­ten­tion to art--chem­istry and ex­per­iments in elec­tric­ity and gal­vanism claim­ing much of his time. He first con­ceived the idea of the tele­graph in 1832, and ex­hib­it­ed his in­ven­tion to Congress in 1837. He strug­gled on with scanty means, and was about to give up in de­spair when Congress ap­pro­pri­at­ed $30,000 for an ex­per­imen­tal line, which was opened on May 12, 1844, be­tween Wash­ing­ton and Bal­ti­more. Prof. Morse died in 1872, but not be­fore he had reaped hon­ors and for­tune from his in­ven­tion.

How rapid­ly does the elec­tric cur­rent trav­el through the wires?

From ex­per­iments made it ap­pears to be about 15,400 miles in a sec­ond.

Can more than one mes­sage be sent at the same time on the same wire?

Yes; it is pos­si­ble now to send sev­er­al mes­sages at the same time.

What is a Ca­ble?

It is a tele­graph wire un­der wa­ter. Prof. Morse, in 1842, laid a wire in­su­lat­ed by a cov­er­ing of hemp coat­ed with pitch-​tar and In­dia-​rub­ber be­tween Gov­er­nor's Is­land and the Bat­tery, New York. Sev­er­al at­tempts were made in oth­er coun­tries.

What was the great­est tele­graph­ic un­der­tak­ing?

That of con­nect­ing Eu­rope with Amer­ica by a sub­ma­rine ca­ble span­ning the ocean, which was com­menced in 1857 and com­plet­ed Au­gust 5, 1858.

To whom do we owe this grand un­der­tak­ing?

This hon­or is en­tire­ly due to Mr. Cyrus W. Field. Mr. Field was born at Stock­bridge, Mass., on Novem­ber 30th, 1819. In 1853 he be­came in­ter­est­ed in ocean teleg­ra­phy, and af­ter many re­vers­es suc­ceed­ed in lay­ing the first ca­ble in Au­gust, 1858. The mes­sage sent by Queen Vic­to­ria to the Pres­ident of the Unit­ed States, con­sist­ing of 99 words, oc­cu­pied 67 min­utes in trans­mit­ting. In Septem­ber of the same year this ca­ble ceased to work, but the en­er­gy of Field re­stored con­fi­dence, and an­oth­er ca­ble was made and laid down in Ju­ly, 1865, but af­ter 1200 miles were de­posit­ed it was lost. In 1866 an­oth­er was made and suc­cess­ful­ly laid in Ju­ly. In Au­gust the lost ca­ble was found and spliced, and car­ried to the west­ern shore.

What is a Dy­namo-​elec­tric ma­chine?

A ma­chine by which very pow­er­ful cur­rents can be ob­tained di­rect­ly from me­chan­ical pow­er. In these, by means of a steam-​en­gine or oth­er pow­er, a num­ber of coils of wire called the ar­ma­ture are set in­to rapid rev­olu­tion be­tween the poles of pow­er­ful elec­tro-​mag­nets. All cur­rents are caused to flow from the ar­ma­ture in one di­rec­tion by means of a con­trivance called the com­mu­ta­tor. Very suc­cess­ful ma­chines of this sort are the Gramme ma­chine, the Siemens, and, prin­ci­pal­ly, the so-​called Brush ma­chine. By these the elec­tric light is now gen­er­al­ly pro­duced.

What is a Light­ning Rod?

It is a rod of iron placed against a build­ing to pro­tect it from light­ning. Three or four feet of one end is in the moist ground or in wa­ter, while sev­er­al feet of the oth­er end ex­tend above the high­est part of the build­ing. The up­per end of the rod is point­ed with cop­per or some oth­er met­al which will not eas­ily cor­rode.

By whom was it in­vent­ed?

By Ben­jamin Franklin, and first an­nounced by him in his “Poor Richard's Al­manac” for 1753. Franklin was born at Boston, Mass., in 1706. By his tal­ents, pru­dence, and hon­esty he rose from hum­ble be­gin­nings to be one of the fore­most men of his time. He was one of the com­mit­tee of five cho­sen by Congress to pre­pare the “Dec­la­ra­tion of In­de­pen­dence” which he with oth­er pa­tri­ots af­ter­wards signed. To­wards the close of the year 1776 he was sent as am­bas­sador to the French Court, and re­mained in Eu­rope some time. He re­turned home in 1785, and died at Philadel­phia on the 17th of April, 1790.

What is the Gulf Stream?

It is a warm cur­rent in the At­lantic Ocean.

What is its ori­gin?

It may be con­sid­ered as be­gin­ning on the west coast of Africa, with­in the re­gion of the trade winds. These cause a west­ward flow, known as the equa­to­ri­al cur­rent. On reach­ing the coast of Brazil, the greater por­tion of this cur­rent bends north­ward, car­ry­ing with it the wa­ters of the Ama­zon and Orinoco, and pass­es through the Caribbean Sea in­to the Gulf of Mex­ico. Here it is fur­ther heat­ed, and rush­es out through the on­ly out­let, the Straits of Flori­da.

De­scribe its course.

Deep and nar­row, it runs by Flori­da with a ve­loc­ity vary­ing from two to five miles an hour, and pressed by the cold cur­rent be­tween it and the shore, flows par­al­lel to the coast as far as Cape Hat­teras. Meet­ing shoals near this point, the banks of sand ex­tend­ing as far as New­found­land, it there turns abrupt­ly to the east, and with di­min­ished speed and in­creased width, rolls on­ward to­wards the coast of Eu­rope. Be­fore long it di­vides in­to two great branch­es--the north­ern and south­ern. The for­mer ex­tends as far as Spitzber­gen; the lat­ter, sweep­ing along by the Madeira and Ca­nary Is­lands, re­turns to the equa­tor, com­plet­ing the cir­cuit.

What in­flu­ence has the Gulf Stream on the cli­mate of Eu­rope?

Var­ious opin­ions have been ex­pressed as to this. It has been es­ti­mat­ed that the amount of heat aris­ing from the stream on a win­ter's day, is suf­fi­cient to raise the at­mo­sphere over the British Isles from the freez­ing point to a sum­mer tem­per­ature.

How may the Gulf Stream be dis­tin­guished?

It can be dis­tinct­ly traced in the ocean by its dark in­di­go col­or, its tem­per­ature, and the swift­ness of its wa­ters.

Which is the largest tun­nel in the world?

The Mt. Ce­nis Tun­nel, or the tun­nel of Col de Fre­jus, by both of which names it is known. It is the longest sub­ter­ranean route for com­merce and trav­el yet con­struct­ed, be­ing 7-1/4 miles in length. It is on the crest of the Cot­tian Alps, about 16 miles south-​west of the sum­mit of Mt. Ce­nis Pass. It was be­gun in 1857, and fin­ished in 1871.

_Col_, a de­file.

What oth­er great en­gi­neer­ing work can you men­tion?

The Suez Canal, a ship canal run­ning across the Isth­mus of Suez, and con­nect­ing the Mediter­ranean with the Red Sea. The canal is 100 miles in length, and through it an un­in­ter­rupt­ed com­mu­ni­ca­tion is es­tab­lished where­by large sail­ing ves­sels and steam­ers may pass from sea to sea, and thus avoid the long and dan­ger­ous voy­age around the Cape of Good Hope.

To whom is the world in­debt­ed for this canal?

This great work owes its in­cep­tion and com­ple­tion to the en­ter­prise and in­domitable en­er­gy of Fer­di­nand de Lesseps, who was born at Ver­sailles, France, on the 19th Novem­ber, 1805. In Jan­uary, 1856, he ob­tained a char­ter from the Egyp­tian Gov­ern­ment for a com­pa­ny to con­struct the canal, and be­gan work in 1859. Though be­set by many dif­fi­cul­ties, the per­sis­tent en­er­gy of De Lesseps fought its way to suc­cess, and in 1869 he had the sat­is­fac­tion of see­ing the wa­ters of the Mediter­ranean and the Red Sea min­gle in the Bit­ter Lakes. He has since been en­gaged in many en­gi­neer­ing projects, the lat­est be­ing a canal across the Isth­mus of Pana­ma to con­nect the At­lantic and Pa­cif­ic oceans.

_In­cep­tion_, be­gin­ning.

_In­domitable_, not to be sub­dued.

_Per­sis­tent_, in­clined to hold firm.

What is a Sus­pen­sion Bridge?

A bridge sup­port­ed by wires, ropes, or chains, which usu­al­ly pass over high piers or columns at each end, and are se­cured in the ground be­low.

Name some of the largest bridges of this kind.

That at Ni­agara, those over the Al­leghe­ny at Pitts­burg and the Ohio at Cincin­nati, and the great East Riv­er bridge, which con­nects New York and Brook­lyn.

Who planned these bridges?

John A. Roe­bling, who was born at Mul­hausen, Prus­sia, June 12, 1806. In 1831 he em­igrat­ed to this coun­try, and to his ge­nius we are in­debt­ed for the bridges above named. The re­ports, plans, and spec­ifi­ca­tions of the East Riv­er bridge were com­plet­ed, and the work be­gun, when Roe­bling was severe­ly in­jured in the foot while di­rect­ing his work. Lock­jaw suc­ceed­ing am­pu­ta­tion, he died in Brook­lyn, Ju­ly 22, 1869.

To what great Civ­il En­gi­neer has the West giv­en birth?

James B. Eads. Born at Lawrence­burg, In­di­ana, May 28, 1820, he be­gan life as a clerk on a Mis­sis­sip­pi riv­er steam-​boat. In 1842 he en­tered a firm en­gaged in re­cov­er­ing sunken prop­er­ty, and with such suc­cess that he re­tired with a for­tune in 1857. Dur­ing the civ­il war he de­vised a plan for the de­fence of the West­ern wa­ters, and con­struct­ed sev­er­al iron gun-​boats with many nov­el fea­tures of his own in­ven­tion. He has since ac­quired rep­uta­tion as pro­ject­ing and con­struct­ing en­gi­neer of the Illi­nois and St. Louis bridge, and by build­ing jet­ties at the South Pass of the Mis­sis­sip­pi, by which the depth of the riv­er is in­creased, and it is made more nav­iga­ble. These jet­ties are pro­ject­ing dikes of brush, fascines, and stone.

_Fascines_, bun­dles of rods or of small sticks of wood, bound at both ends and at in­ter­me­di­ate points, used in fill­ing ditch­es, etc.

Give the names of some dis­tin­guished Amer­ican in­ven­tors.

Eli Whit­ney, the in­ven­tor of the Cot­ton Gin, born in West­bor­ough, Mass., 1765; died 1825. Jethro Wood, the in­ven­tor of the mod­ern cast-​iron plow, born at White Creek, N.Y., 1774; died 1834. Cyrus H. Mc­Cormick, in­ven­tor of the mow­ing ma­chine, born at Wal­nut Grove, Vir­ginia, in 1809.

Who was the in­ven­tor of the Sewing Ma­chine?

Elias Howe. He was born at Spencer, Mass., Ju­ly 9, 1819. When a boy he worked in a cot­ton mill at Low­ell, but af­ter­wards en­tered a ma­chine shop in Boston. Here he con­ceived the idea of the sewing ma­chine, and af­ter long days of la­bor, part of which time he and his fam­ily lived on the kind­ness of a friend, he com­plet­ed his in­ven­tion. Af­ter many strug­gles, his tal­ent, in­dus­try, and per­se­ver­ance were re­ward­ed, and long be­fore his death, which oc­curred in Oc­to­ber, 1867, he had ac­quired a large for­tune.

IN­DEX.

Abyssinia, 142

Ad­he­sion, 201

Affin­ity, Chem­ical, 197, 199

Air, 17 fixed, 112

Al­bert Dur­er, 130

Alche­my, 194

Al­co­hol, 137

Alexan­der, 161

Alexan­dria, 168

All­spice or Pi­men­to, 51

Al­lu­vial for­ma­tions, 152

Al­monds, 61

Al­pha­bet, in­ven­tion of, 43

Alum, 74

Alu­mi­na, 154

Amal­gam, 20

Am­ber, 18

Am­ber­gris, 66

Anal­ysis and Com­bi­na­tion, 195

Anemome­ter, 206

An­ge­lo, Michael, 162

An­no Do­mi­ni, 35

Apelles, 182

Apol­lo, 178

Ara­bic, gum, 94

Ara­bia, Fe­lix and De­ser­ta, 72

Archipela­go, 32

Ar­chi­tec­ture, 156 or­ders of, 159, 160

Argil, 154

Ar­me­nia, 67

Ar­row-​root, 134

Ar­senic, 126

Arte­sian Wells, 203

Arts, 190 lib­er­al, 190 fine, 191 me­chan­ical, 191

Art of writ­ing, 191

As­bestus, 76, 78

As­tron­omy, sci­ence of, 187

Athe­ni­ans, 23

At­mo­sphere, 17

At­trac­tion, 201

Au­di­phone, 204

Au­ro­ra, the, 21

Au­ro­ra Bo­re­alis, 22

Aus­tralia, 31

Au­thor, 54

Azores, is­lands of, 62

Azote gas, 113

Ba­bel, tow­er of, 144

Baby­lon, 145

Ba­con, Roger, 99

Baize, 32

Bar­bar­ians, 170, 183

Bar­il­la or So­da, 105

Bark, 35 Pe­ru­vian, 36

Bar­ley, 24 sug­ar, 49

Barom­eter, 96 Aneroid, 203

Bar­rel or­gan, 179

Bath­ome­ter, 206

Beaver, 70, 71, 74

Bell, A.G., 204

Black lead, 122

Blow­pipe, 208

Bod­ies, nat­ural, 197

Bom­bazine, 40

Books first print­ed, 59

Books, of what made, 37, 57

Bot­tles, 54

Box, mu­si­cal, 179

Brandy, 137

Brass, 84

Bread-​fruit, 86

Bricks, 144

But­ter, veg­etable, 87 tree, 87

Ca­ble, 214

Ca­cao-​nut tree, 27

Cad­mus, 43

Calam­inaris, Lapis, 84

Cal­care­ous rocks, 150

Cal­ico, 28

Caloric, 14, 114

Calomel, 97

Cam­bray, 41

Cam­bric, 41

Cam­era Ob­scu­ra, 209

Cam­let, 41

Cam­phor, 140

Can­dles, 106

Can­dy, Sug­ar, 49

Can­non, 100

Ca­noe, 36

Can­tale­up, 67

Can­vas, 33

Caoutchouc, 107

Ca­pers, 61

Car­bon, 112

Car­bon­ic acid, 112

Carmine, 138

Car­pets, 32

Carthage, 164

Cash­mere shawls, 46

Cas­sia, 40

Cas­tor or beaver, 70

Cas­tor oil, 66

Cat, civet, 141 do­mes­tic, sin­gu­lar prop­er­ty of its fur, 19 gut, 179

Caviare, 135

Cayenne pep­per, 53

Chaldea, 187

Chalk, 115

Char­coal, 81

Chem­istry, 193-200

Cher­ry-​tree, 35

Chi­nese or In­dia ink, 76

Chi­na or­ange, 62

Choco­late, 27

Chronome­ter, 206

Chrysalis, 42

Cider, 136

Cin­na­mon, 39

Cit­rons, 62

Clay or argil, 154

Clocks, 98

Cloth, 29

Cloves, 38, 39

Coal, 81

Cochineal, 37, 38, 138

Co­coa-​nut tree, 34

Cof­fee, 26

Co­he­sion, 201

Coin, 165

Com­bus­tion, 113

Com­pass, Mariners', 95

Com­merce, 170

Con­stel­la­tions, 188

Con­sul, Ro­man, 147

Coper­ni­cus, 189

Cop­per, 83

Cop­peras, 75

Coral, 109-112

Cork, 37

Corn, 23

Cot­ton, 28 gins, 29

Cow-​tree, 88

Crape, 40

Cre­tans, 23

Crim­son, 138

Cru­sades, 172, 173

Crys­tal­liza­tion, 14

Cur­rants, 46

Cyrus, 146

Damask, 34

Dates, 68, 69

De­com­po­si­tion, 196

Del­uge, 191

Dew, 13, 14

Di­amond, 127

Di­aper, 33

Dis­til­la­tion, pro­cess of, 137

Drake, Sir Fran­cis, 92

Dye­ing, things used in, 138

Dy­na­mite, 100

Dy­namo-​elec­tric ma­chine, 214

Eads, Jas. B, 218

Earths, 151 argilla­ceous, 152 cal­care­ous, 150 si­li­cious, 152

Earth­en­ware, 55

Earth­quakes, 155

Ear-​trum­pet, 204

Ebony, 132

Edi­son, Thos. A., 205

Egyp­tian Pyra­mids, 158

Egyp­tians, 23

Elec­tri­cal ma­chine, 19 prop­er­ties in bod­ies, 19

Elec­tric­ity, 18, 210

Elec­tric Bat­tery, 211 Cur­rent, 210

Elec­tro-​Mag­net, 104 Mag­net­ic Te­leg'ph., 104, 213

Elec­tron, 18

Elec­trotyp­ing, 212

Ele­phant, 133

Emer­ald, 129

En­grav­ing, 130

Er­mine, 73

Etr­uscans, 182

Ev­er­green, 65

Fer­men­ta­tion, ace­tous, 138 vi­nous, 138

Fer­ro, 88

Field, Cyrus W., 214

Figs, 48

Fine arts, 191

Fitch, John, 103

Flan­nel, 34

Flax, 33

Flint, 153

Float­ing, 202

Flo­rence, 64

Fos­sil or rock salt, 78

Franks, 170

Frank­in­cense, 142

Franklin, Benj., 215

Ful­ton, Robert, 103

Fur, 73

Galileo, 101, 189

Galls, 75

Gam­boge, 139

Gas, 114 hy­dro­gen, 114 ni­tro­gen or azote, 113 oxy­gen, 113

Gela­tine, 135

Gems, 127

Genoa, 63, 172

Ge­ol­ogist, 151

Ge­ol­ogy, 151

Ge­om­etry, 102

Gin, 137

Gin­ger, 50

Glass, 53 house, 54 win­dows, 54 look­ing, 55

Gloves, 73

Goat, An­go­ra, 41

Gold, 118

Goths, 170

Gran­ite, 148, 149

Grav­ita­tion, 201

Grav­ity, 202

Gray, El­isha, 205

Gulf Stream, 215

Gum, 93 ara­bic, 94

Gun­pow­der, 99, 100

Guns, 100

Hail, 16

Harp, 176

Hats, 70

Hemp, 33

Her­cu­la­neum, 154

Her­met­ic Seal, 96

Her­schel, Sir William, 190

Hi­ero­glyph­ics, 191

Hol­land, 33

Hon­ey, 136

Hops, 137

Howe, Elias, 218

Hy­bla, 136

Hy­dro­gen, 114

Hymet­tus, 136

Ice, 15

Idria, quick­sil­ver mines of, 97

In­dia rub­ber, 107 or Chi­nese ink, 76

In­di­go, 138

Ink, 74 used by the an­cients, 75

In­lay­ing, 132

In­sect, coral, 109-111

Io­ni­ans, 60

Iron, 82

Isin­glass, 132

Is­lands, Vol­canic, 155

Ivory, 135

Ja­ca tree, 87

Japanese, 181

Jet­ties of the Mis­sis­sip­pi, 218

Jupiter, 148

Kalei­do­scope, 210

Kiln, 73

Lace, 41

Lapis calam­inaris, 84

Lau­danum, 91

Laws, How made, 148

Lead, 121 black, 122

Leather, 72

Leg­isla­tive Pow­ers, 147

Lemon, 62

Lens­es, 95

Leo the Tenth, 184

Lesseps, Ferd. de, 217

Lev­ant, 75

Libanus, Mount, 90

Licorice, 89

Light, 207 Drum­mond, 207 Elec­tric, 208, 211 Lime, 207 Mag­ne­sium, 208

Light­ning, 17 Rod, 215

Lime, a fruit, 63

Lime, an earth, 73, 112 quick, 150

Linen, 32

Liq­uids, 197, 198

Lithog­ra­phy, 131

Load­stone, 95

Log­wood, 139

Lom­bards, 170

Luc­ca, 64

Lu­cul­lus, 35

Lungs, 89

Lyre, 178

Mc­Cormick, Cyrus H., 218

Mace, 51

Mag­ic, 99

Ma­hogany, 107

Malt, 137

Mal­tese or­ange, 62

Man­goes, 85

Man­ioc plant, 134

Man­na, 89, 90

Mar­ble, 116 Par­ian, 117

Mariners' com­pass, 95

Ma­rine salt, 78

Marl, 101

Math­emat­ics, 101

Mead, 136

Me­chan­ics, 102

Mediter­ranean, 171

Mega­phone, 206

Mel­ons, 67

Mer­cury, 97 the god, 178

Met­als, prim­itive, 83

Met­al­lur­gy, 123

Mi­cro­phone, 205

Mi­cro­scope, 102

Mi­lan, 40

Mil­let, 50

Min­er­al oil, 65 tar, 140

Mines, 84 coal, 81

Mint, 166

Mir­rors, 54, 55

Mo­hair, 46

Ma­homed, 72

Mon­ey, 163

Mor­phia, 91

Mor­tar, 148

Morse, S.F.B., 213

Mosque, 72

Moth­er-​of-​pearl, 132

Mt. Ce­nis Tun­nel, 216

Mus­cles, 21

Mu­sic, vo­cal, 176

Mu­si­cal in­stru­ments, 174 box­es, 179

Musk, 141

Myrrh, 141

Nantes, Edict of, 45

Na­tron, 105

Na­ture, king­dom of, 197

Nav­iga­tion, 166-174

Nabu­chodonosor, 146

Nee­dles, 57

Nero, 185

New South Wales, 31

New­ton, Sir Isaac, 189

Nico­tine, 92

Ni­tre, 100

Ni­tro­gen, 113

North­ern Lights, 22

Nut­megs, 50

Oats, 24

Obelisk, 158

Oils, 65

Oil, olive, 64

Oil, cas­tor, 66 min­er­al, 65

Olives, 63, 64

Olive branch, the em­blem of Plen­ty, 64

Opi­um, 91

Or­ange, 61

Ore, 83

Or­gan, bar­rel, 179

Ox­ide, 83

Oxy­gen, 113

Painters, cel­ebrat­ed, 184

Paint­ing, art of, 180

Palm, 68, 69

Pal­ma Christi, 66, 67

Pan­theon, 146

Pa­per, in­ven­tion of, 57 mill, 58 linen, 58

Pa­pyrus, 58

Parch­ment, 59

Pearls, 131

Pearl oys­ter, 131 bar­ley, 24

Pen­du­lum, 98

Pep­per, 52 cayenne, 53

Per­icles, 159

Per­ry, 136

Petroleum, 65

Pheni­cia, 54

Philoso­pher's stone, 194, 195

Phono­graph, 205

Phos­pho­rus, 125

Pho­tog­ra­phy, 209

Pins, 57

Pi­men­to, 51

Pisa, 172

Pitch, 140

Plati­na, 123

Pliny, 54, 182

Plumba­go, 122

Po­et­ry, 185-187

Po­ets, cel­ebrat­ed, 186

Poly­pus, 108

Pom­peii, 154

Porce­lain, 56

Potash, 53

Pota­toes, 24

Prim­itive Earths, 153

Print­ing, 59

Prism, 208

Protes­tant, 58

Ptolemies, 189

Pyra­mid, 158

Pythago­ras, 188

Quick­sil­ver, 97

Rab­bins, 55

Rain, 16

Rain­bow, 208

Raisins, 47

Raleigh, Sir Wal­ter, 92

Raphael, 183, 184

Refugee, 58

Re­pub­lic, 65

Resin, gum, 93

Rhubarb, 94

Rice, 48

Rock or fos­sil salt, 78 cal­care­ous, 150 tran­si­tion, 151

Roe­bling, John A., 217

Ru­bies, 128

Rum, 137

Rye, 24

Sable, 74

Sa­go, 49 palm, 50

Salt, 78, 79 ma­rine, 78 rock, 78 spring, 79

Salt­pe­tre, 100

Sara­cens, 168

Scar­let, 138

Schools of paint­ing, 184

Sci­ences, Arts and, 190

Sculp­ture, 160

Seal, an an­imal, 74

Sen­ate, 147

Sesostris, 177

Seville or­ange, 62

Shoes, 72

Si­cil­ians, 23

Sidon, 167

Silex, 153

Si­li­cious earths, 152

Silk, 41, 45 worm, 42-43

Sil­ver, 119

Slate, 149

Snow, 16

Soap, 105

So­da, 105

Spe­cif­ic Weight, 202

Spec­ta­cles, 94

Spec­trum, 208

Sper­ma­ceti, 106

Spin­ning-​jen­ny, 30

Spir­its of wine, 137

Sponge, 108

Starch, 133

Steam en­gine, 102 nav­iga­tion, 103

Steel, 150

Stetho­scope, 204

Stere­oscope, 209

Stereo­typ­ing, 212

Still, 137

Stock­ings, 71

Stra­ta, 151

Suez Canal, 216

Sug­ar, 48 can­dy, 49 bar­ley, 49 maple, 49

Sul­phur, 124

Suma­tra, 66

Sus­pen­sion Bridges, 217

Tal­low, 106 tree, 106

Tamarinds, 67

Tan, 73

Tapi­oca, 134

Tar, 139

Tasime­ter, 206

Tas­ma­nia, 31

Tea, 25

Tele­graph, 104, 213

Tele­phone, 204

Tele­scope, 101

Thebes, 43

Ther­mome­ter, 97

Ther­mo-​Elec­tric­ity, 211

Thi­bet Goat, 46

Thun­der, 17

Tides, 201

Tin, 120

To­bac­co, 91

Tod­dy, 34

Tor­toise, 178

Tow­er, lean­ing of Pisa, 172

Troy, 177

Tur­pen­tine, 143

Turquois, 129

Tus­cans, 182

Twi­light, 21

Tyre, 167

Unit­ed States Gov­ern­ment, 147

Va­por, 14

Vel­lum, 60

Vel­vet, 45

Venice, 171

Venus, 171

Vine, 136

Vine­gar, 138

Vit­ri­ol, 75

Vol­canic for­ma­tions, 152

Vol­cano, 154

Vul­can­ite, 108

Watch­es, 98

Wa­ter, 14 mel­on, 67 de­com­po­si­tion of by veg­eta­bles, 15 tree, 88

Wax, 106

Weav­ing, 30-32

Whale, 66

Whit­ney, Eli, 218

Wielicz­ca, 80

Wind, 17

Win­dows, 54

Wine, 136

Woad, 139

Wood, Jethro, 218

Wood en­grav­ing, 130

Wool, 29-31

Writ­ing, art of, 191

Yams, 85

Zinc, 84

Zoophytes, 108

THE END.

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